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Tax Incidence ... In that all business taxes reduce profitability, and in accordance with the principles set out by the Physiocrats, they reduce the amount of rent that the business can pay and thus the incidence falls on the landowner... The land owner may be the business itself but the effect is to cut into that part of the revenue stream that consists of land rental value...
Insurance ... Events that contain speculative elements, such as ordinary business risks or even purchasing a lottery ticket, are generally not considered insurable...
Ad Valorem Tax ... A conventional or retail sales tax attempts to achieve this by charging the tax only on the final end user, unlike a gross receipts tax levied on the intermediate business who purchases materials for production or ordinary operating expenses prior to delivering a service or product to the marketplace... Maurice Lauré, joint director of the French tax authority, the Direction générale des impôts, as taxe sur la valeur ajoutée (TVA in French) was first to introduce VAT with effect from 10 April 1954 for large businesses, and extended over time to all business sectors...
Life Insurance ... The advantage for the policy owner is "peace of mind", in knowing that the death of the insured person will not result in financial hardship for loved ones. Life policies are legal contracts and the terms of the contract describe the limitations of the insured events...
Business ... Basic forms of ownership See also: Types of business entity Although forms of business ownership vary by jurisdiction, there are several common forms: Sole proprietorship: A sole proprietorship is a business owned by one person for-profit... In most forms of partnerships, each partner has unlimited liability for the debts incurred by the business... Corporation: A corporation is a limited liability business that has a separate legal personality from its members...
Taxation In The United Kingdom ... Income tax was announced in Britain by William Pitt the Younger in his budget of December 1798 and introduced in 1799, to pay for weapons and equipment in preparation for the Napoleonic Wars. Pitt's new graduated (progressive) income tax began at a levy of 2 old pence in the pound (1/120) on incomes over £60 (£5,077 as of 2012), and increased up to a maximum of 2 shillings (10%) on incomes of over £200...
Marketing Research ... Marketing research is often partitioned into two sets of categorical pairs, either by target market: Consumer marketing research, and Business-to-business (B2B) marketing research Or, alternatively, by methodological approach: Qualitative marketing research, and Quantitative marketing research Consumer marketing research is a form of applied sociology that concentrates on understanding the preferences, attitudes, and behaviors of consumers in a market-based economy, and it aims to understand the effects and comparative success of marketing campaigns. The field of consumer marketing research as a statistical science was pioneered by Arthur Nielsen with the founding of the ACNielsen Company in 1923...
Head Tax (Canada) ... That was achieved through the same law that ended the head tax: the Chinese Immigration Act of 1923, which stopped Chinese immigration entirely, albeit with certain exemptions for business owners and others...
Capital Gains Tax In The United States ... Ordinary income rate Long-term capital gain rate Short-term capital gain rate Long-term gain on commercial buildings* Long-term gain on collectibles Long-term gain on certain small business stock 10% 0% 10% 10% 10% 10% 15% 0% 15% 15% 15% 15% 25% 15% 25% 25% 25% 25% 28% 15% 28% 25% 28% 28% 33% 15% 33% 25% 28% 28% 35% 15% 35% 25% 28% 28% * Unrecaptured Section 1250 gain... Applies to the portion of gains on depreciable real estate (structures used for business purposes) that has been or could have been claimed as depreciation... Small company stock capital gains Section 2011 of the Small Business Jobs Act of 2010 exempts 100% of the taxes on capital gains for angel and venture capital investors on small business investments if held for 5 years...
Investment ... Investment is involved in many areas of the economy, such as business management and finance whether for households, firms, or governments...
Property Tax ... There are three species or types of property: land, improvements to land (immovable man-made objects, such as buildings), and personal property (movable man-made objects). Real property (also called real estate or realty) means the combination of land and improvements...
Monetary Policy ... Monetary policy differs from fiscal policy, which refers to taxation, government spending, and associated borrowing. Overview Monetary policy rests on the relationship between the rates of interest in an economy, that is, the price at which money can be borrowed, and the total supply of money...
Value Added Tax ... The "value added" to a product by a business is the sale price charged to its customer, minus the cost of materials and other taxable inputs... With the VAT, collections, remittances to the government, and credits for taxes already paid occur each time a business in the supply chain purchases products...
Capital Gains Tax ... The sale of personal residential property is normally exempt from Capital Gains Tax, except for gains realized during any period in which the property was not being used as a persons personal residence (for example, being leased to other tenants) or portions attributable to business use...
Capital Gains Tax In Australia ... CGT operates by having net gains treated as taxable income in the tax year an asset is sold or otherwise disposed of. If an asset is held for at least 1 year then any gain is first discounted by 50% for individual taxpayers, or by 33.3% for superannuation funds...
Liability Insurance ... If a declaratory judgment is sought, the issue of the insurer's duty to defend will be resolved. If the insurer decides to defend, it has thus either waived its defense of no coverage (later estopped), or it must defend under a reservation of rights...
Sales Tax ... A portion of the sale may be exempt from the calculation of tax, because sales tax laws usually contain a list of exemptions. Laws governing the tax may require it to be included in the price (tax-inclusive) or added to the price at the point of sale...
History Of Money ... Many items have been used as commodity money such as natural scarce precious metals, cowry shells, barley, beads etc., as well as many other things that are thought of as having value. Modern money (and most ancient money) is essentially a token — in other words, an abstraction...
Market Environment ... MICROENVIRONMENT The microenvironment refers to the forces that are close to the company and affect its ability to serve its customers. It includes the company itself, its suppliers, marketing intermediaries, customer markets, competitors, and publics...
Interest Rate ... Interest rates targets are also a vital tool of monetary policy and are taken into account when dealing with variables like investment, inflation, and unemployment. Historical interest rates In the past two centuries, interest rates have been variously set either by national governments or central banks...
Marketing ... This replaces the previous definition, which still appears in the AMA's dictionary: "an organizational function and a set of processes for creating, communicating, and delivering value to customers and for managing customer relationships in ways that benefit the organization and its stakeholders." It generates the strategy that underlies sales techniques, business communication, and business developments...
Health Insurance ... 1) a contract between an insurance provider (e.g. an insurance company or a government) and an individual or his sponsor (e.g...
Marketing Plan ... This "corporate mission" can be thought of as a definition of what the organization is, of what it does: "Our business is ."... This definition should not be too narrow, or it will constrict the development of the organization; a too rigorous concentration on the view that "We are in the business of making meat-scales," as IBM was during the early 1900s, might have limited its subsequent development into other areas...
Money Supply ... Public and private sector analysts have long monitored changes in money supply because of its possible effects on the price level, inflation and the business cycle...
Indemnity ... While the event may be specified by the contract, the actions that must be taken to make the injured party "whole" again are largely fact-based and unknown to the parties until the event occurs, while the maximum liability is often expressly limited by the contract. A car insurance policy is an example of indemnification...
Further Reading: Finance
Tax Per Head ... The word poll is an English word that once meant "head" - and still does, in some specialised contexts - hence the name poll tax for a per-person tax. In the United States, however, the term has come to be used almost exclusively for a fixed tax applied to voting...
International Monetary Fund ... There were two views on the role the IMF should assume as a global economic institution. John Maynard Keynes, from Britain, imagined that the IMF should be a cooperative fund which member states could draw upon to maintain economic activity and employment through periodic crises...
Financial Market ... There are both general markets (where many commodities are traded) and specialized markets (where only one commodity is traded). Markets work by placing many interested buyers and sellers, including households, firms, and government agences, in one "place", thus making it easier for them to find each other...
Tariffs In United States History ... At the end of American Civil War in 1865 about 63% of Federal income was generated by the excise taxes which exceeded the 25.4% generated by tariffs. In 1915 during World War I tariffs generated only 30.1% of Federal Tax income and excise taxes 59.5%...
Economic History Of The United States ... Throughout the colonies, people lived primarily on small farms and were self-sufficient. In the few small cities and among the larger plantations of South Carolina, and Virginia, some necessities and virtually all luxuries were imported in return for tobacco, rice, and indigo exports...
International Economics ... The branch of trade theory which is conventionally categorized as "classical" consists mainly of the application of deductive logic, originating with Ricardo’s Theory of Comparative Advantage and developing into a range of theorems that depend for their practical value upon the realism of their postulates. "Modern" trade theory, on the other hand, depends mainly upon empirical analysis...
Fractional Reserve Banking ... Central banks generally mandate reserve requirements that require banks to keep a minimum fraction of their demand deposits as cash reserves. This both limits the amount of money creation that occurs in the commercial banking system, and ensures that banks have enough ready cash to meet normal demand for withdrawals...
Tax ... A tax may be defined as a "pecuniary burden laid upon individuals or property owners to support the government a payment exacted by legislative authority." A tax "is not a voluntary payment or donation, but an enforced contribution, exacted pursuant to legislative authority" and is "any contribution imposed by government whether under the name of toll, tribute, tallage, gabel, impost, duty, custom, excise, subsidy, aid, supply, or other name." Overview The legal definition and the economic definition of taxes differ in that economists do not consider many transfers to governments to be taxes. For example, some transfers to the public sector are comparable to prices...
Gap Insurance ... GAP is the difference between the actual cash value of a vehicle minus all perils deductible (if at fault) and liens (especially in Canada) and the lease or loan payout minus financed soft products (like its own cost) or negative equity on a trade. GAP coverage is mainly used on new and used small vehicles (cars and trucks) and heavy trucks, and some financing companies require it...
Economy Of The Song Dynasty ... Under the Song dynasty there was also a notable increase in commercial contacts with the outside world, with merchants engaging in overseas trade through investments in trading vessels, which undertook trade at ports as far away as East Africa. This period also witnessed the development of the world's first banknote, or printed paper money (see Jiaozi, Huizi), which was established on a massive scale...
Real Estate Development ... Developers buy land, finance real estate deals, build or have builders build projects, create, imagine, control and orchestrate the process of development from the beginning to end...
Great Leap Forward ... Chief changes in the lives of rural Chinese included the introduction of a mandatory process of agricultural collectivization, which was introduced incrementally. Private farming was prohibited, and those engaged in it were labeled as counter revolutionaries and persecuted...
Real Estate Appraisal ... In some areas, an appraiser doesn't need a license or any certification to appraise property. Usually, however, most countries or regions require that appraisals are done by a licensed or certified appraiser (in many countries known as a Property Valuer or Land Valuer and in British English as a "valuation surveyor")...
Monetary Hegemony ... Britain’s foreign lending practices possessed two technical aspects that gave greater credence to the prominence of sterling as a unit of storage and medium of exchange: first, British loans to foreigners were made in sterling, which allowed the borrowing country to service the debt more conveniently with its sterling reserves, and second, Britain’s use of written instructions to pay or bill exchanges were drawn in London to finance international trade...